' Pollice Verso ' 
(Thumbs Down) by the artist Jean
Leon Gerome 1872
NEW REVELATIONS
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The latest historic research now proposes that gladiators actually fought to rules of engagement, similar in respects to today's form of Queensbury rules as introduced into boxing in 1867. Recently, exhumed remains from the bodies of 67 gladiators from a cemetery at Ephesus in Turkey which has been identified as a Gladiators tomb by all of the artistic stonework surrounding it were examined. The remains were subjected to modern forensic CT X-ray scan and microscopic analysis by Austrian Dr Karl Grossschmidt of the Medical University of Vienna and Dr Fabian Kanz from the Austrian Archaeology Institute and the findings were quite unexpected and refute the all out no holds barred fights as depicted in Hollywood films. This latest research proposes that gladiators fought bouts that would be similar to today's martial arts competitions and fencing bouts. The gladiators expertise at swordsmanship and combat was displayed in dashing swashbuckling bouts but not necessarily to the death. What has been discovered is that vanquished opponents were most likely dragged out of the arena whilst still alive and death was swiftly delivered to these severely wounded gladiators by a hammer blow to the head.
This still sounds cruel and barbaric but in days where medical knowledge and anaesthetics were relatively unknown it was probably seen as humane and merciful. It has been discovered by the examination of the remains that injuries to the front of the skull in particular were created by the same weapon. There was a total lack of multiple fractures, cuts and mutilation in any of the bones examined, this is a strong indication that a strict code of fighting etiquette was observed in the Arena. As this page illustrates, most Gladiators wore protection against injury ie armour, helmets and shields and the fact that most if not all Gladiators wore helmets during combat in the Arena is the main clue that suggests that wounded Gladiators were indeed dispatched later behind the scenes, as the skulls of those bore identical square type holes in the side of the head, these made by square hammer type weapon or instrument by an executioner. The very knowledgeable Dr Kathleen Coleman from Harvard University USA was the historic consultant for the smash box office hit " Gladiator" and when she was furnished with these new findings and she replied " The fact that none of the Gladiator skulls was subjected a repeated battering ( as would be expected in furious battle and has been found on skulls from normal battlefields ) it does seam to confirm that discipline was exercised in Gladiatorial combat and its aftermath. ORIGINS OF THE GLADIATOR
The term 'Gladiator' means
Swordsman or sword wielder , it is derived from the word 'Gladius' which is what
the typical Roman long sword of the time was called. Gladiators were introduced into Rome in 264 BC and originated
from the rites of sacrifice involving the spirits of the dead and the need for
offerings of blood. But this edifice soon lost its religious significance, from being a compliment to the dead to being a compliment to the
living.
The spectacle of gladiators fighting to the death in the arena was
hugely popular in Roman times and in fact it lasted the entirety of the Empire
of Rome. The Gladiatorial games were watched and enjoyed by enthralled audiences
for almost 600 years ! and in that time it is thought, tens of thousands of men died
and purely
for purpose of entertainment. SPARTACUS Perhaps the most famous gladiator was a man by the name of
Spartacus, who was originally a deserter from the Roman army. He had been caught and sold
off as
a slave to the Ludus Gladiatorus, which was the gladiator school in Capua,
Italy. Spartacus was one of
78 gladiators who escaped in 73 BC, they hid in and around the mountains around Mount Vesuvius.
Below: Spartacus as played by Kirk Douglas in
the 1960 movie of the same name.
His followers soon numbered over 70,000 and they fought against the
soldiers of Rome and defeated them on all occasions. Spartacus and
his army however were eventually defeated by General of six legions, Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71 BC.
The body of Spartacus was never finally identified. Crassus had six thousand of Spatacus's followers
crucified along the road, known as The Appian Way, between Capua and Rome. It is thought that Spartacus may have been one of
them, keeping quiet and never giving himself away. This mass crucifixion served as a reminder and a warning
to all gladiators and also
emphasised the power of Rome and the terror that would befall anyone who went
against her. As governor of Syria in 54, Crassus attempted
to gain military glory by embarking on an unwarranted invasion of Parthia, to
the east. He was defeated and killed at the battle of Carrhae in southern
Anatolia during this conquest. The schools that trained gladiators soon had tighter control
over them after Spartacus's revolt and many new Imperial schools opened and were
run with better management. Gladiators from these schools were often hired by wealthy
citizens or members of the Senate as bodyguards. It must be remembered that
these gladiators were highly trained swordsmen. WHO WERE THE GLADIATORS ? Most gladiators were either deserters from the Roman army, slaves who
were bought for the purpose or criminals who were given the alternative to fight
in the arena or be put to death, A fair choice !! It must also be said here that almost half
if not more of the gladiators
that fought did so of their own free will, they were men who were ex-soldiers,
freed slaves, outcasts, Roman citizens and former gladiators who had won their
freedom and chose to return to the games. People who volunteered to become a gladiator did so for a fee
for their services and the better the gladiator the more his fee but they had to
swear an absolute oath of submission to the Caesar and people of Rome under pain
of death. Subsequently they had to sign a contract to this affect. All comers were accepted and
were never turned down this included women who
were called Amazones, dwarfs and older children. The Roman Emperor Commodus (AD 180-192 ) even fought as
a gladiator himself but was often matched against poor opponents and victory
came quickly to him. The mad Roman Emperor Gius Germanicus Caligula Caesar also fought in
the arena but it must be said that his opponents only had wooden swords ! Julius Caesar commemorated the death of his daughter Julia who had died in childbirth eight years
earlier with a fantastic spectacle of gladiatorial games. In 65 BC, he presented an even more lavish display, when,
in honour of his father who had died twenty years before, 320 pairs of
gladiators fought in silver armour (even more would have competed had not a
nervous Senate prohibited it). It appears that Julius would use any excuse to
put on a huge spectacle. THE COLISEUM OF ROME The name "Coliseum"
was derived from a colossal statue of Caesar Nero which stood 120 ft high. The
name 'Coliseum' however didn't arrive until much later as the name of the
stadium was called Amphitheatrum Caesareum. The
Coliseum, which was built
by the Flavian dynasty under the reign of Titus in AD
80 held as many as 50,000 spectators. Domitian (AD 81-96) completed the
elaborate network of service corridors and chambers below the arena (from harena,
the sand used to absorb the spilled blood) and established, as well, four
training schools nearby, including one for training the bestiarii. The
largest of these, the Ludus Magnus, was connected to the amphitheatre by an
underground passage. Each had its own oval arena and seating so one could
watch the gladiators train, as an added intrigue. The
Coliseum could be filled with water and often
simulations of naval battles could be re-enacted, the deaths of the gladiators of
course was never simulated. TYPES OF GLADIATOR Captured enemy soldiers who fought in the arena did so with
their original weapons and were encouraged to fight in their own particular
style of combat to please the crowds. It was from this introduction that many of
the exotic styles and appearances came from. The Samnites were the class that became the professional
gladiators of Rome and set the standard apparel of the
gladiator until the end of the games hundreds of years later. They wore a wide leather belt (balteus) and carried a large
oblong shield (scutum), a sword (gladius), an elaborate
helmet (galea),
a greave (ocrea) on the left leg and a protective sleeve of steel
plates or chain mail (manica) on the right arm. Andabatae.
Wore helmets which did not have any eye holes in them. Catervarii.
Fought whilst being all chained together in groups . Dimacheri.
This gladiator fought with two swords. Equites.
Fighting whilst on horse back was this gladiators forte. Essedarii. Copying
the British and Gallic methods this gladiator fought in a chariot. Hoplomachi.
These were a more heavier armed version of the Samnites. Laqueatores.
Specialised in the use of the lasso. Meridiani.
Always fought in the middle of the day, after the wild beast
fights. They were lightly armed. Myrmillo.
wore a large helmet (Galae) with a fish on its crest, a
manica of mail, leather or metal scales on his left arm, ocrea on at
least one leg, a scutum and a straight Greek-styled sword. Ordinarii.
This was a standard no thrills gladiator who fought with a shield and sword. Provocator
Was armed like the Samnite with a parma and a hasta,
his opponent was often the Myrmillo. Retiarius wore a subligaculum and a metal galerus on
the left arm. He carried a net, a dagger and a trident. Samnite.
Used scutum and ocrea on his left leg, a
galea
with a large crest and plume, and a gladius. Secutor.
Carried a large oval or rectangular shield, an
ocrea
on his left leg, a round or high-visored helmet, manicae at the elbow
and wrists, and a sword or dagger. Thracian.
Wore metal plate on both legs, a small square shield, a
helmet, and a Thracian sword. Gladiator Weapons and
Armour Below is pictured the most
common gladiators sword of them all. The Gladius
Hispaniensis. This classic Roman short sword
"Gladius Hispaniensis" (Spanish Sword ) It was the basic sword used
throughout the Roman empire by its soldiers and gladiators alike. It was
short and primarily used for stabbing as opposed to slashing. It is
believed to have been adopted from the Spanish armies serving with Hannibal in the
Second Century BC. An engraved Gladius with inlaid
gold to the helm and handle, this sword may have been given to a champion
Gladiator who won several combats in the arena. Fascina: harpoon Below are
featured some typical gladiator helmets styles.
It is thought that gladiators also donned standard Roman army issue
helmets (as seen below) when performing popular re-enactments of Roman
conquests.
IN
THE ARENA
The gladiators actually fought
to rules as laid down in a handbook of basic gladiatorial conduct in the
Arena .
The gladiators had
to be evenly but not always identically matched in the arena, there was no valor or
honor in beating a weaker un-matched opponent. One could be armed with two
swords and no armor whilst the other was perhaps armed with a knife and was
weighed down by a tremendous amount of armor. Each type
of gladiator had his own particular weapons,
strategies, and skills, and only by comparison could they be demonstrated. Gladiators who were similarly armed, therefore, rarely competed against one
another. Most contests, in fact, seem to have been between the Thraex
or retiarius and their more heavily armed adversaries, between, that
is, what the public favored as parmularii or scutarii
(small-shield and big-shield men). The Bestarii were a specialized gladiator that fought wild
animals but the popularity of these super cruel spectacles were abolished in
AD323 after 100,000 or more animals died in the arena's of the Roman Empire. In
fact several species of animals nearly became extinct. For example there were no
more hippopotami in their native land most of the elephants and lions from
Africa had disappeared. It is thought that over 10,000 animals died in the Coliseum alone
at the hands of the gladiator. Fighters
usually confronted one another in single combat, but there also were
spectacles of massed combat between hundreds of pairs. Five thousand pairs fought in
games given by Augustus, and in AD 107, in celebration of his conquest of
Dacia. On the day preceding the games as a gift
from Rome a huge
banquet was offered to the competing gladiators, a feast of magnificent proportion. There were pamphlets and much advertising about the coming
attractions which induced much betting and to the people of Rome it would be a
grand day out ! On the day of the games the gladiators were paraded around the
arena and then they approached the Emperors podium and swore their oath to him
"Ave Ceasar, morituri te salutamus !" translated as "Hail
Ceasar, those about
to die salute you". An old myth is dispelled here in that it is now
understood was only condemned
criminal's who said this oath and not the
professional gladiator. The games normally started with a pretend sparring match with
gladiators fighting with wooden swords this was so that the crowd could see who
to bet on in advance. Then the real games began with a fanfare and the gladiators
entered the arena to fight, if any of the gladiatorial criminal fraternity had second thoughts then they
were apparently forced out at sword point or by a hot branding iron by a Roman soldier. When during a fight a gladiator was wounded and collapsed then
the cry from the crowd would be "Habet Hoc Habet" he's had it ! or
"Mitte !" let him live ! or more sinister "Lugula" Kill him !
If the wounded man was able he would implore the crowd for mercy this was
answered in one of two ways the first was thumbs up which indicated that he
should live whilst the other was a jabbing of the thumb up and then towards the
heart. Generally it was the Emperor that had the final say and he normally went with
the tone of the crowd depending on his mood of course. If the games were held with no emperor present then it was the
host of the games who had the final say. Winners often received monies and gifts as stipulated in their
contracts the amount that they could receive. As stated earlier though, it has never been
100% proven that gladiators actually always fought to the death. SUMMARY It may surprise many to
learn that the majority of gladiators fought by their own free will and choice
and not as generally depicted by Hollywood that they were all forced to fight. We must understand that it was by
and large a profession, similar in a way to today's boxers, fighting in a roped
ring, not to the death admittedly but the theme is still the same. Wealthy citizens of Rome owned a gladiator pretty much
the same as wealthy people today own a race horse. The gladiator held much admiration with the people of Rome. Caesar's celebrated their victories,
enhanced their own reputations, and showed off their power with enactments in
the arena of fighting gladiators to buffer up their prestige and ego's. The gladiators existence was often short
lived quite literally but they were revered for their
courage and honor even though they were still regarded as lower social
elements. They were
depicted in many ways in Roman life in mosaics, paintings, sculptures and
ornaments. There was also a large amount of graffiti observed on the walls of
ancient Rome of such famous gladiators like Celadus the Thracian who was adored
by lots of women. The games as viewed today appear to us as something callous,
cold, sinister and ultimately cruel. Certainly Rome was very harsh but
their culture was based upon war, discipline
and death and no other culture was ever thought of. Criminals and enemies of Rome had no place within its zero
tolerance empire, and in some ways the gladiatorial games were a
salvation to those who participated in them. The gladiatorial games
were abolished by Constantine in AD 326 and the remaining schools closed by
Honorius in AD 399. But gladiatorial combats continued, in one form or
another, until AD 404, when Honorius finally prohibited them altogether. For over 6 centuries, the gladiator had died as a spectacle for the roaring
crowd. Also, please see my new web page (now including large clear
images) about the Roman gladius sword...click
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